Alternative motivation theory
December 11, 2007
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Alternative Approaches to Motivation
(a) Decision Making Process
Recent studies on motivation have concentrated in understanding how individuals deal with individual decisions.
They work in the premise that each individual has a set of needs and a set of desired results. The individual decides how much effort, energy, enthusiasm etc generally called E-factors to expend by doing a calculation.
Needs
Each individual has their own set and this can differ widely. The relative importance of each need in the set can change over time.
Motivational calculation (Calculus)
This is the mechanism by which we decide how much e-factors we expend on any particular activity of set of activities. The calculus is different for each individual.
For each individual the calculus has 3 separate elements:
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The strength or salience of the need
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The expectancy that ‘E’ will lead to a particular result.
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The instrumentality of that result in reducing the need in (1) above.
The calculus is subjective, individuals make it personally and relationships are multiplicative.
The anticipated results should be clear otherwise the individual will makeup his mind of the probable outcome or more usually will make no calculation at all.
Note:
People don’t go through this calculus every time they make a decision. It is useful to remember it because it is the ultimate decision making mechanism.
b) Psychological Contracts:
This is essentially a set of expectations. The person has a set of results that he expects from the organization. The results that will satisfy some of our needs and in return we will expend some of our energies and talents.
It is important to note:
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Individuals have more than one psychological contract
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A contract which is not perceived identically by both parties becomes a source of trouble conflict or mitigation.
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The motivation calculus of the individual becomes predictable when the psychological contract is viewed in similar terms by both parties.
Organizations can be categorized by the predominant type of psychological contract. These are
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Coercive contract
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Calculative contract
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Cooperative contract
Coercive Contract:
The individual is held as a member against his will. It is not voluntarily entered. Methods of control are rule and punishment. The individual task is to conform and comply
When this is the dominant contract the expectation of any ‘E’ factors must be limited to those which can be called forth by fear of punishment.
Calculative Contract:
The contract is a voluntary one. Individuals render service for return of money or goods.
Increases in ‘E’ factors for this contract have to be paid for by the organization in some way or the other.
Cooperative Contract:
Individuals tend to identify with the goals of the organization and to become creative in the pursuit of these goals. The individual is given more say in the selection of the goals and more discretion in the choice of means to achieving them. The management delegates much of the control to the individual.
Implications
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Each individual has a motivation calculus mechanism which is used for precedent setting decisions.
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This mechanism operates within the limits of a psychological contract implied between an individual of the group and the organization.
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Motivation will happen when the psychological contract is viewed by organization and the individual is the same.
c) Money as a motivation:
The value of money will depend upon the individual calculus, the strength of the needs affected by money. The expectancy that any ‘E’ will lead to more money, and the instrumentality of money in meeting the needs.
It should be noted that:
a) Money is all embracing
Most needs can be quantified in monetary terms i.e. it is instrumental in satisfying each and every need.
b) Money is the basis for comparison:
It can be measured precisely and is useful as a measure of comparison.
Conclusion:
Motivation calculus gives some understanding about the process by which individuals decide to apportion ‘E’ factors, but the things that influence that calculus that affect the salience (strengths) of needs are many and various.
The self concepts of the individual, the role that we are in, our psychological contract and our perception of the situation are all involved.
Satisfaction Theory
December 11, 2007
The satisfaction Theory (Herzberg): (2-factor Theory):
Herzberg identified elements which cause job dissatisfaction and classified them as hygiene factors. Those which can cause job satisfaction he classified them as motivator factors.
He called them hygiene factors because they are essentially preventive i.e. they prevent or minimize dissatisfaction, but do not give satisfaction.
The hygiene factors are:
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Company policy and administration
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Salary
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Quality of supervision
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Interpersonal relations
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Working conditions
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Job security
The hygiene factors relate to conditions of work rather than to the work itself. They answer the question why work here?
The motivator factors actually create job satisfaction and are effective in motivating an individual to superior performance and effort. They answer the question why work harder?
These factors are:
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Status
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Advancement
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Gaining recognition
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Being given responsibility
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Challenging work
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Achievement
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Growth in the job
Expectancy Theory (V.H. VROOM):
This states that an individual’s behavior is affected by:
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What the person wants to happen.
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That person’s estimate of the probabilities of various events occurring including the desired outcome.
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The strength of the persons belief that a certain outcome will satisfy his needs.
In other words the theory states that the strength of an individual’s motivation to do something will depend on the extent to which he expects the results of his efforts to contribute towards his personal needs, either to reward him or punish him.
The expectancy theory states that people will decide how much they are going to put into their work according to:
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The value that they place on the outcome, whether positive value of reward or the negative value of punishment. This is called valence.
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The strength of their expectation that behaving in a certain way will infact bring out the desired outcome. This is called expectancy.
Motivation theory
December 11, 2007
MOTIVATION:
The word motivation is derived from the word motive which means any idea or emotions that prompts a person into action.
In the employment context the major concentration for management is the problem of getting the employees to work in such a way that the organization achieves its goals.
Importance of Motivation
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It improves efficiency with which the job is done.
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It leads to higher productivity and better quality work
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It creates confidence in employees
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It leads to lower supervisory cost
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It reduces labour turnover, absenteeism, complaints and grievances from the employees.
Motivation can also be defined as the urge or drive to take action to satisfy wants. The motivators are the actions or implements that will actually motivate employees to perform in a desired way.
Motivation Theories:
There are various ways of looking at motivation. The early motivation theories can be grouped under 3 headings
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Satisfaction Themes (Herzberg)
These theories are based on the assumption that a satisfied worker will work harder. Satisfaction may reduce labor turnover and absenteeism but will not necessarily increase individual productivity.
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Incentive Theories:
These theories are based on the assumption that individuals will work harder in order to obtain a desired reward. This is a positive reinforcement although most studies are concentrated on money as a motivator.
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Incentives theories can work if the individual perceives the increased reward to be worth the extra effort.
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The performance can be measured and clearly attributed to that individual.
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The individual wants that kind of reward.
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The increased performance will not become the new minimum standard.
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Intrinsic Theory
These theories are based on the belief that higher order needs are one more prevalent in modern man than he is given credit for. People will work hard in response to factors in the work itself e.g. participation, responsibility and so on i.e. effective performance is its own reward.
Span of Control In Organisations
December 11, 2007
ORGANISATION
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An organization is a deliberate social grouping created to pursue specific objectives.
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It has a structure and order
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It can be formal or informal organization.
Formal Organisation
A formal organization is characterized by
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Planned division of responsibility
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Power centers which control its efforts
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They have an explicit hierarchy in a well defined structure
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Specification and communication channels are also well defined.
The scalar chain: (Chain of command): This is the term used to describe the management hierarchy i.e. chain of superiors from the lowest to the highest rank e.g. Formal communication runs up and down the lines of authority
Span of Control (SOC)
The number of subordinates directly working under a superior in an organization e.g. if a manager has 5 subordinates his SOC is 5. If there are few subordinates working directly under a superior the SOC is said to be narrow.
A narrow SOC offers:
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tight control and close supervision
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Lower information overload which leads to more time to plan.
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Better coordination of subordinate activities
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Better communication with subordinates
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Responsibility in decision making
A wide SOC offers:
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Greater decision making authority for subordinates
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Loss control, but perhaps greater motivation through job satisfaction.
Tall and Fat Organisation
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Tall organization: This is one in which in relation to its size has a large number of levels of management hierarchy.
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Flat organization: One in which in relation to its size has a smaller number of hierarchy levels.
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A tall organization implies a narrow SOC and a Flat Organisation implies a wide SOC.
IT has of late become core in operations of an enterprise due to a number of reasons:
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The declining cost of computers
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The improved performance of computers
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Development of communication technology that enables geographical boundaries to be overcome.
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Development of networking technologies that enables several machines to be connected together and achieve the power of large machines.
This has had a profound impact on corporate cultures
Computers have always produced information but only a select few people had access to a limited amount of information. Today timely information can be made available and readily accessible to those who need it whether at operational or executive levels.
It has taken a center stage in many companies.
The world has rapidly become an information society. The way we obtain and use information has forever changed the way we as a society go about the routine living of internet, home banking, ATMs, point of sale systems etc which have all benefited mankind.
On the downside the emergence of IT has raised serious social issues e.g.
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Personal information is more accessible and therefore more vulnerable to abuse.
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Increase in white collar crime
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A computer control robot can replace several workers
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Corruption of morals e.g. through the internet.
