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Delegation

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Delegation is an advanced leadership skill. Its one way leaders:

• free themselves of time consuming chores.
• provide followers with development opportunities
• increase the number of tasks accomplished by the work group, team, or committee.

However it is often overlooked and underused in management.

Defined, delegation implies that the leader empowers another person to take responsibility for completing certain tasks or engaging in certain activities. Delegation gives the responsibility for decisions to those individuals most likely to be affected by or to implement the decisions.

Delegation is more concerned with autonomy responsibility and follower development than with participation.

MISUSE OF DELEGATION.

• Failure to delegate authority needed to accomplish delegated tasks.
• Monitoring too closely those delegated to.
• Delegating only those tasks the leaders do not want to do.

IMPORTANCE OF DELEGATION

Frees time for other activities. Leadership entails achieving goals through others. Leaders have to think in terms of the whole group or organizations, capability not just their own. This may cause conflict in some leaders who may have been successful on their own. However leaders have some responsibilities they must delegate. Due to delegation, the leader is able to have some time to attend to those other activities he is more suited or situated to accomplish. Delegation allows the leader to invest his time wisely.

Delegation develops followers. Developing subordinates is one of the most important responsibilities of any leader. Delegating significant tasks to subordinate is one best way to support their growth. This provides the subordinate with opportunities for initiative, problem solving, innovation, administration and decision making. By providing practical experience in a controlled fashion, delegation allows subordinate the best training experience-learning by doing.

Delegation strengthens the organization. Strengthening/developing subordinates strengthens the organization. This depicts that that subordinates are trusted and their development is important. This motivates the subordinates to want to work in the organization. Skillful delegation tends to increase the significance and satisfaction levels of most jobs making subordinate’s jobs better. In turn an organization systematically develops its personnel, its overall experience level, capability and vitality also increases. Delegation therefore stimulates innovation and generates fresh ideas and new approaches throughout the whole organization.

 

WHY AVOID DELEGATION?

Delegation takes too much time. Delegation saves time for the leaders in the long run, but it costs time for the leader in the short run. It takes time to train the subordinates to perform any new tasks. However when the task is a recurring or repetitive one, the long-term savings will make the additional effort in training worth it, for both the leader and the followers.

Delegation is risky. Delegation is risky i.e. it reduces direct personal control over the work

• The job will not be done as well
• The task is a desirable one
• Others are already too busy.

PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE DELEGATION.

• Decide what to delegate.
• Decide who to delegate
• Make the assignment clear and specific.
• Assign an objective, not a procedure.
• Allow autonomy, but monitor performance
• Give credit, not blame.

POINTS TO COVER WHEN DELEGATING A TASK.

• How does the task relate to organizational goals

• When does the subordinate’s responsibility for the task begin?

• How has the task been accomplished in the past.

• What problems were encountered with the task in the past?

• What sources of help are available?

• What unusual situations might arise in the future?

• What are the limits of the subordinates authority?

• How will the leaders monitor the task(e.g. provide feedback)

• Always convey high confidence and expectations.

The Hierarchy of needs Abraham Maslow

In his motivation theory Maslow argued that man has 5 innate needs. These needs can be arranged in a hierarchy as below.

 

(1) Physiological Needs

This are needs for food, shelter, heat, clothing i.e. basic needs etc. This must be satisfied for a person to survive.

2. Safety Needs

This is the freedom from threat, need for security, order and predictability.

(3) Social Needs

Most people desire love and affection they want to belong to a community and to feel waned i.e. they need a sense of belonging.

( 4) Esteem Needs

This includes needs for recognition, authority and influence over others. It also includes needs for appreciation, status, and respect etc.

(5) Self –Actualization Need:

This is the fulfillment of personal potential or the desire to become everything that one is capable of becoming.

In his motivation theory Maslow put forward certain positions about the motivating power of these needs and how they actually dictate the process by which they are fulfilled.

These are:

• A person’s needs can be arranged in a hierarchy

• Each level of need is dominant until satisfied, only then does the next level of need become a motivating factor.

• A need which has been satisfied no longer motivates an individual’s behaviour and the need of self actualization can never be satisfied.

In short Maslow suggested that individuals are motivated! by the 5 levels. When the 1^st level is satisfied, the individual will try to satisfy the next level and so on.

Criticism or Problems of Maslow’s Approach:

• Some needs might no exist in certain people. What is considered important by one person could be regarded as trivial by another.

• Assuming all the needs are present, they might not be ranked in the order outlined. Also Needs can exist simultaneously and horizontally as well as sequentially and vertically.

• The theory states that individuals will seek to attain higher levels only when lower levels are satisfied. Many people however are actually conscious of higher needs even though their fundamental, physiological needs have not been met.

Critical Success Factors (CSF)

The technique suggests that strategic information requirements can be uncovered by a 3 stage process.

Firstly the identification of a number of critical success factors (CSF).

CSFs are a handful of things within someone’s job that must go right for the organization to flourish. They are the factors that the manager wishes to keep a constant eye on.

Secondly, they pinpoint critical decisions that need to be made.

The determination of the information required to support these decisions

 

 

Example:
The national parts department within a large organization has a basic business strategy of providing superior product support while maintaining an efficient operation that achieves a high return on investment might have:

CSF: Minimize length of time a part is kept in stock

KD: It might decide what quantities must be ordered

IR: it would need order on demand (rate of sale)

Meeting this CSF ensures that the investment in stock is kept low and that part reach dealers quickly. As this examples shows it is necessary to be clear about business objectives before embarking on CSF Analysis. The process of CSF Analysis allows managers, initially senior ones to articulate the needs in terms of their information management control that is absolutely essential to them.

These needs are influenced by factors such as:

• The industry within which the firm operates
• The environmental factors such as local politics and economic situations
• The firm’s industry position
• The Manager’s position in the management hierarchy.

Prior to the use of CSF there was a rift between the consumers of information i.e. user management and the providers of information i.e. information systems. So CSF can give some guidance on needs in such a way that the effect of the rift is minimized.

CSF must be:

• Intelligent to senior managers
• Intelligent to IS/IT Managers
• Possible to act on (capable of implementation)

CSF Analysis can be applied lower down in the management structure but it gets more and more difficult to articulate as we move down the hierarchy. However, it is generally useful to use several management levels in order to validate the CSF and get a broader picture. Below is an example of the tactical level.

CSF:

• Effective Management control of people/staff

KDs :

• Setting performance standards
• Specification of training needs
• Determination of whether or not to introduce overtime

IR

• Performance reporting
• Budget Allocation
• Exception reports

Challenges of CSF:

• The analysis needs very skilled and very perceptive interviewers to do the abstracting of CSF from senior manager.
• The more removed from the management apex a specific manager is the harder it is to apply CSF analysis. Many managers who are not already involved in strategic planning find CSF analysis too abstract.
• It is usually impossible to build a true picture of the organization’s information requirements using only CSFs.
• The decisions resulting from CSF analysis may ignore any resource constraints, surrounding their realization.

Leadership

Leadership is the process of influencing others to work willingly towards an organizational goal and to the best of their capabilities.

Approaches to the problem of leadership have usually fallen under one of the three general headings.

• Trait theories

• Style theories

• Contingency theories

a) Trait Theories

These have concentrated on finding certain characteristics or traits that effective leaders should posses.

Traits that have been identified include:

• Intelligence

• Initiative i.e. capability to perceive a need for action and the urge to do it.

• Self assurance

• Helicopter Vision i.e. the ability to rise above the particulars of a situation and perceive it in its’ relation to the overall environment.

Other traits include:

• Aggressiveness

• Energy

• A drive for achievement or power

• Appearance

• Imagination

• Decisiveness

• Interpersonal skills

• Integrity

• Sociability

Criticism of Trait Theory

1. Possession of all the traits is an impossible ideal

2. These are too many exceptions i.e. people who don’t have the traits but are notably successful leaders.

3. The top 3 traits are necessary but not sufficient to make a good leaders i.e. possession of them doesn’t make one a good leader.

4.The traits are not well defined to be useful in practice.

b) Style Theory of Leadership

This assumes that employees will work harder for managers who employ given styles than they will for a manager who employs other styles. These styles can are:

• Autocratic
• Paternalistic
• Consultative
• Participative

 

1.Autocratic Style (Telling style)

In the autocratic style, the manager makes decisions and enforces them. He forces subordinates to work by threatening punishment, penalties. i.e. He coerces the subordinates to work.

Strengths

i. Quick decisions can be made when speed is required

ii. It is the most efficient type of leadership for highly programmed nature work e.g. data processing.

Weaknesses:

i. It does not encourage subordinates to give their opinions when his might be useful.

ii. Communication between manager and subordinates will be one way and the manager will not know until afterwards whether his orders have been properly understood.

iii. It does not encourage initiative and commitments from subordinates.

2.Paternalistic (Sells) type

The manager makes decisions and either announces them to the subordinates.

Strengths

i. Employees are made aware of the reason for decisions.

ii. Selling decisions to staff management make them more willing to cooperate.

iii. Staff will have a better idea of what to do when unforeseen events arise coz the manager will have explained the situation.

Weaknesses:

i. Communication is still largely one way and subordinates might not buy his decisions.

ii. It does not encourage initiative and commitment from subordinates.

3.Consultative Style

In this style the manager may suggest ideas and may ask for comments and amend his decisions accordingly or he may present the problem ask for ideas and make decisions from the ideas.

Strengths

i. Employees are involved in decisions before they are made thus encourages motivation.

ii. An agreed consensus can be reached and for some decisions consensus can be of advantage rather than a work compromise.

iii. Employees can contribute their knowledge and experience to help in solving more complex problems.

Weaknesses:

i. Management takes much longer to make decisions.

ii. Subordinates might be too inexperienced to formulate mature opinions and give practical advices.

4.Participative Style

In this style the leader may present a problem to his group of subordinates and asks them to solve it or he may allow subordinates to acts as they wish within specified limits.

Strengths

i. It can provide high motivation and commitment from employees.

ii. Employees are involved in decisions before they are made thus encourages motivation.

iii. An agreed consensus can be reached and for some decisions consensus can be of advantage rather than a work compromise.

iv. Employees can contribute their knowledge and experience to help in solving more complex problems.

Weaknesses:

i. The authority of the manager may be undermined.

ii. Management takes much longer to make decisions.

iii. Subordinates might be too inexperienced to formulate mature opinions and give practical advices

Authoritarian style is generally referred to as structuring style. Democratic style is usually referred to as supporting style. Supportive style usually leads to:

i. Subordinate satisfaction

ii. Lower turnovers and grievances rates

iii. Less inter-group conflict.

However research findings on democratic style have shown:

a. Productivity increase is not very significant.

b. Some people prefer to be directed

c. In repetitive or routine work a structured style of leadership leads to higher productivity therefore in conclusion overall effectiveness in an organization is clearly dependent on more than style alone.

c)Contingency Theory

This takes more specific account on the other variables involved in a leadership situation. In particular the following:

• Task on hand

• Workgroups

• Position of the leader within that workgroup.

They argue that there is no optimum style but the choice of style will depend on the task on hand and the nature of the group.

Recommended Text

Roles & Interaction in organisation

Role Theory is a study of individual and his tasks or activities. It seeks to understand how an individual reacts given a particular situation.

The concept of role theory

a)Role set

This is the group of people interacting with the focal person (the subject under consideration) the set includes all those with whom the individual has more than trivial interactions.

b)Role definition

The definition of any individual’s role in any situation will be a combination of the role expectations that the members of the role set have of the focal role. The expectations are often occupationally defined e.g. security officer, lecturer e.t.c.

The particular role at any given time should be clear for example using a role sign.

Roles without signs often lead to confused or defined expectations of the role of the focal person.

c)Role ambiguity

This results when there is some uncertainty in the minds of either the focal person or of the members of his role set as to precisely what his role is at any given time.

d)Role incompatibility

This arises when the expectations of the members of the role set are well known, but are incompatible as features of the same role e.g. the company policy may dictate working mode and subordinate expect independence.

e)Role conflict

This results from the necessity for a person to carry out one or more roles in the same situation.

f)Role Overload

This is the situation where the number of roles that one person has to handle become too much.

g)Role Under-load

This arises when an individual feels that the role definition is out of line with his self concept.

Note:

It is the individual perception that causes role underload.

Role stress

Role ambiguity i.e. unclear role expectations, role incompatibility (i.e. differing expectations), role conflict (i.e. overlapping or conflicting roles), role overload (i.e. too many roles) and role underload (i.e. too few roles) can lead to what is called role stress.

Stress can be good since most people need some form of stress to bring out their best performance. If the stress is of the wrong form or much then it becomes damaging. Beneficial stress is called role pressure, and harmful stress is called role strain.

Symptoms of role strain

a) Tension e.g. irritability

b) Low morale e.g. low confidence in the organization, expression of dissatisfaction with the job e.t.c.

c) Communication difficulties.

If role strained seems to underlie with those behavior patterns, the next step is to identify the types of the role patterns.

Strategies for declining with role strain

The individual can cope with role strain by:

a) Repression

i.e. the individual refuses to admit there is a problem.

b) Withdrawal

i.e. the individual retreats behind a psychological barrier or leaves the organization.

c) Rationalization

The individual decides that the conflict is inevitable and that he must live with it.

Strategies for each type of role problem

a) Role Ambiguity

• Attempt to clarify his/her role definition.

• Enforce his expectations on other members of the role set.

• Asking for clarification other specifically or by precedent from key members of the role set.

b) Role Incompatibility

• Deciding privately to give preference to the more important members of a role set and down grading the expectations of the others.

• By asking for a resolution of the incompatibility from the affected parties.

c) Role Conflict

• By reducing the importance of one of the roles so that performance in that role is no longer a bother to himself.

• Compartmentalization: so that roles do not overlap by setting up roles and procedures to maintain those compartments.

d) Role Overload

• Downgrading the importance of some of the roles.

• By an agreed re-assignment of role responsibilities and priorities.

e) Role underload

• By exercising irritant powers to increase invisibility felt presence in the organization?

• By taking on someone else’s role in addition to your own.

Implication of stress

There are 5 organizational situations that are likely to create role problems and therefore stress for the individual.

a) Responsibility for the work of others

b) Innovative functions: Innovative activities led to conflicting priorities, the organization may be in favor of the states quo and the manager may be at loss as whether to be innovative.

c) Integrative and bonding functions: These are coordinating functions between various groups. There may be inadequate control over their demands for resources.

d) Relationship problems

e) Career uncertainty

Alternative motivation theory

Alternative Approaches to Motivation

(a) Decision Making Process

Recent studies on motivation have concentrated in understanding how individuals deal with individual decisions.

They work in the premise that each individual has a set of needs and a set of desired results. The individual decides how much effort, energy, enthusiasm etc generally called E-factors to expend by doing a calculation.

Needs

Each individual has their own set and this can differ widely. The relative importance of each need in the set can change over time.

Motivational calculation (Calculus)

This is the mechanism by which we decide how much e-factors we expend on any particular activity of set of activities. The calculus is different for each individual.

For each individual the calculus has 3 separate elements:

1. The strength or salience of the need

2. The expectancy that ‘E’ will lead to a particular result.

3. The instrumentality of that result in reducing the need in (1) above.

The calculus is subjective, individuals make it personally and relationships are multiplicative.

The anticipated results should be clear otherwise the individual will makeup his mind of the probable outcome or more usually will make no calculation at all.

Note:

People don’t go through this calculus every time they make a decision. It is useful to remember it because it is the ultimate decision making mechanism.

b) Psychological Contracts:

This is essentially a set of expectations. The person has a set of results that he expects from the organization. The results that will satisfy some of our needs and in return we will expend some of our energies and talents.

It is important to note:

• Individuals have more than one psychological contract

• A contract which is not perceived identically by both parties becomes a source of trouble conflict or mitigation.

• The motivation calculus of the individual becomes predictable when the psychological contract is viewed in similar terms by both parties.

Organizations can be categorized by the predominant type of psychological contract. These are

1. Coercive contract

2. Calculative contract

3. Cooperative contract

Coercive Contract:

The individual is held as a member against his will. It is not voluntarily entered. Methods of control are rule and punishment. The individual task is to conform and comply

When this is the dominant contract the expectation of any ‘E’ factors must be limited to those which can be called forth by fear of punishment.

Calculative Contract:

The contract is a voluntary one. Individuals render service for return of money or goods.

Increases in ‘E’ factors for this contract have to be paid for by the organization in some way or the other.

 

Cooperative Contract:

Individuals tend to identify with the goals of the organization and to become creative in the pursuit of these goals. The individual is given more say in the selection of the goals and more discretion in the choice of means to achieving them. The management delegates much of the control to the individual.

Implications

• Each individual has a motivation calculus mechanism which is used for precedent setting decisions.

• This mechanism operates within the limits of a psychological contract implied between an individual of the group and the organization.

• Motivation will happen when the psychological contract is viewed by organization and the individual is the same.

 

c) Money as a motivation:

The value of money will depend upon the individual calculus, the strength of the needs affected by money. The expectancy that any ‘E’ will lead to more money, and the instrumentality of money in meeting the needs.

It should be noted that:

a) Money is all embracing

Most needs can be quantified in monetary terms i.e. it is instrumental in satisfying each and every need.

b) Money is the basis for comparison:

It can be measured precisely and is useful as a measure of comparison.

Conclusion:

Motivation calculus gives some understanding about the process by which individuals decide to apportion ‘E’ factors, but the things that influence that calculus that affect the salience (strengths) of needs are many and various.

The self concepts of the individual, the role that we are in, our psychological contract and our perception of the situation are all involved.

Recommended Text

Satisfaction Theory

The satisfaction Theory (Herzberg): (2-factor Theory):

Herzberg identified elements which cause job dissatisfaction and classified them as hygiene factors. Those which can cause job satisfaction he classified them as motivator factors.

He called them hygiene factors because they are essentially preventive i.e. they prevent or minimize dissatisfaction, but do not give satisfaction.

The hygiene factors are:

• Company policy and administration

• Salary

• Quality of supervision

• Interpersonal relations

• Working conditions

• Job security

The hygiene factors relate to conditions of work rather than to the work itself. They answer the question why work here?

The motivator factors actually create job satisfaction and are effective in motivating an individual to superior performance and effort. They answer the question why work harder?

These factors are:

• Status

• Advancement

• Gaining recognition

• Being given responsibility

• Challenging work

• Achievement

• Growth in the job

Expectancy Theory (V.H. VROOM):

This states that an individual’s behavior is affected by:

1. What the person wants to happen.

2. That person’s estimate of the probabilities of various events occurring including the desired outcome.

3. The strength of the persons belief that a certain outcome will satisfy his needs.

In other words the theory states that the strength of an individual’s motivation to do something will depend on the extent to which he expects the results of his efforts to contribute towards his personal needs, either to reward him or punish him.

The expectancy theory states that people will decide how much they are going to put into their work according to:

• The value that they place on the outcome, whether positive value of reward or the negative value of punishment. This is called valence.

• The strength of their expectation that behaving in a certain way will infact bring out the desired outcome. This is called expectancy.

Recommended Text

Motivation theory

MOTIVATION:

The word motivation is derived from the word motive which means any idea or emotions that prompts a person into action.

In the employment context the major concentration for management is the problem of getting the employees to work in such a way that the organization achieves its goals.

Importance of Motivation

• It improves efficiency with which the job is done.

• It leads to higher productivity and better quality work

• It creates confidence in employees

• It leads to lower supervisory cost

• It reduces labour turnover, absenteeism, complaints and grievances from the employees.

Motivation can also be defined as the urge or drive to take action to satisfy wants. The motivators are the actions or implements that will actually motivate employees to perform in a desired way.

Motivation Theories:

There are various ways of looking at motivation. The early motivation theories can be grouped under 3 headings

1. Satisfaction Themes (Herzberg)

These theories are based on the assumption that a satisfied worker will work harder. Satisfaction may reduce labor turnover and absenteeism but will not necessarily increase individual productivity.

2. Incentive Theories:

These theories are based on the assumption that individuals will work harder in order to obtain a desired reward. This is a positive reinforcement although most studies are concentrated on money as a motivator.

• Incentives theories can work if the individual perceives the increased reward to be worth the extra effort.

• The performance can be measured and clearly attributed to that individual.

• The individual wants that kind of reward.

• The increased performance will not become the new minimum standard.

3. Intrinsic Theory

These theories are based on the belief that higher order needs are one more prevalent in modern man than he is given credit for. People will work hard in response to factors in the work itself e.g. participation, responsibility and so on i.e. effective performance is its own reward.

Recommended Text

Span of Control In Organisations

ORGANISATION

• An organization is a deliberate social grouping created to pursue specific objectives.

• It has a structure and order

• It can be formal or informal organization.

 

Formal Organisation

A formal organization is characterized by

• Planned division of responsibility

• Power centers which control its efforts

• They have an explicit hierarchy in a well defined structure

• Specification and communication channels are also well defined.

 

 

The scalar chain: (Chain of command): This is the term used to describe the management hierarchy i.e. chain of superiors from the lowest to the highest rank e.g. Formal communication runs up and down the lines of authority

Span of Control (SOC)

The number of subordinates directly working under a superior in an organization e.g. if a manager has 5 subordinates his SOC is 5. If there are few subordinates working directly under a superior the SOC is said to be narrow.

A narrow SOC offers:

• tight control and close supervision

• Lower information overload which leads to more time to plan.

• Better coordination of subordinate activities

• Better communication with subordinates

• Responsibility in decision making

A wide SOC offers:

• Greater decision making authority for subordinates

• Loss control, but perhaps greater motivation through job satisfaction.

Tall and Fat Organisation

• Tall organization: This is one in which in relation to its size has a large number of levels of management hierarchy.

• Flat organization: One in which in relation to its size has a smaller number of hierarchy levels.

• A tall organization implies a narrow SOC and a Flat Organisation implies a wide SOC.

IT has of late become core in operations of an enterprise due to a number of reasons:

• The declining cost of computers

• The improved performance of computers

• Development of communication technology that enables geographical boundaries to be overcome.

• Development of networking technologies that enables several machines to be connected together and achieve the power of large machines.

This has had a profound impact on corporate cultures

Computers have always produced information but only a select few people had access to a limited amount of information. Today timely information can be made available and readily accessible to those who need it whether at operational or executive levels.

It has taken a center stage in many companies.

The world has rapidly become an information society. The way we obtain and use information has forever changed the way we as a society go about the routine living of internet, home banking, ATMs, point of sale systems etc which have all benefited mankind.

On the downside the emergence of IT has raised serious social issues e.g.

 

• Personal information is more accessible and therefore more vulnerable to abuse.

• Increase in white collar crime

• A computer control robot can replace several workers

• Corruption of morals e.g. through the internet.

• Recent Posts

  • Delegation
  • INVENTORY MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES
  • Inventory management
  • Inventory Management
  • Business Process reengineering BPR
  • System development methodology
  • PRINCE (Projects IN Controlled Environments)
  • Object oriented technology
  • Data Warehouse
  • The Hierarchy of needs Abraham Maslow

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